2.3.1　Metacognition

2.3.1MetacognitionThissectionfirstpresentsadefinitionofmetacognition,thenoutlinesatypologyoftypesofmetacognition,andfinallyprovidesadefinitionofmetacognitivestrategiesandaclassificationofdifferentmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategies.

2.3.1.1DefinitionofMetacognition

Studiessuggestthatlanguagelearnershavedefinitebeliefsabouthowtolearnasecondlanguage(Wenden,1986&1991;Wenden&Rubin,1987),andthattheyarealsocapableofbecomingawareoftheirmentalprocesses(O'Malley&Chamot,1989).Thesebeliefsandthisawarenessarecollectivelycalled「metacognitiveknowledge」byFlavell(1979),whocreatedtheterm「metacognition」.

Theconceptof「metacognition」wasfirstraisedindevelopmentalpsychologyinthe1970s.Theprefix「meta」literallymeans「beyond」.Metacognitionthereforemeans「beyondcognition」.Asearlyas1978,JohnFlavell,acognitivepsychologist,definedmetacognitionas「knowledgethattakesasitsobjectorregulatesanyaspectofanycognitivebehavior」(Flavell,1978,P8).Hethendescribedmetacognitionasawarenessofhowonelearns,awarenessofwhenonedoesanddoesnotunderstand,knowledgeofhowtouseavailableinformationtoachieveagoal,abilitytojudgethecognitivedemandsofaparticulartask,knowledgeofwhatstrategiestouseforwhatpurposes,andassessmentofone'sprogressbothduringandafterperformance(Gourgey,1998,p.83-84).「Itwastheprocessofusingcognitiveprocessestoimprovethinkingskills.Anditwascalledmetacognitionbecauseitscoremeaningwascognitionaboutcognition」(Flavell,1985,p.104).

Metacognition,asitrelatestolanguagelearning,dealswithlearnersbeingawareofthestrategiestheyareusingandmonitoringtheprocessandsuccessoftheirlearningwhileusingcognitivestrategiestolearnlanguage.Anderson(2002,p.1)definesmetacognitionas「thinkingaboutthinking」.AsAndersonstated,theuseofmetacognitivestrategiesignitesone'sthinkingandcanleadtohigherlearningandbetterperformance.Furthermore,understandingandcontrollingcognitiveprocessmaybeoneofthemostessentialskillsthatteacherscanhelpL2learnersdevelop.

Thus,metacognitioninthisstudyreferstomonitoring,planningandevaluatingtheuseofcognitivestrategiesinanL2learningcontext.

2.3.1.2TypologyofMetacognition

InFlavell's(1979)opinion,metacognitionincludesthreecomponents:metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitiveexperienceandmetacognitiveregulation.Metacognitiveknowledgereferstothepartofone'sacquiredworldknowledgethathastodowithcognitivematters.Metacognitiveexperiencesareconsciousexperiencesthatarecognitiveandaffective.Metacognitiveregulationreferstoasetofactivitiesthathelpstudentstocontroltheirlearning.Metacognitiveregulationimprovesperformancebyencouragingbetteruseofattentiveresources,betteruseofexistingstrategies,andagreaterawarenessofcomprehensionbreakdowns.Itinvolvestheapplicationofmetacognitivestrategieslikeplanning,monitoring,managingandevaluatingthelearningprocess,itsproductsanduseofstrategies.

AccordingtoAnderson(2002),therearethreemajoraspectsofmetacognition:metacognitiveknowledge—knowledgeorbeliefsaboutwhatfactorsorvariablesactandinteractinwhatwaystoaffectthecourseandoutcomeofcognitiveactivities;metacognitiveexperiences—consciouscognitiveoraffectiveexperiencesthataccompanyandpertaintothecognitiveactivities;andmetacognitivestrategies—settinggoals,monitoringperformanceorcomprehensionandanyproblemsthatarise,andmakingdecisionsforappropriatesubsequentaction(Rubin,1990).

BothFlavell'sandAnderson'saccountsofmetacognitiondistinguishthreemajorcomponents:metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitiveexperiences,andmetacognitivestrategies.Thesethreecomponentsofmetacognitionworkinteractively,andtherelationshipamongthemisasfollows:

(a)metacognitiveknowledgehelpsindividualstounderstandtheirexperiences,whichisaprerequisitefordevelopingmetacognitiveexperiences;

(b)metacognitiveexperiencesactivatetherelevantmetacognitiveknowledgeinmemoryinordertoparticipateinthecurrentmetacognitiveactivitiesandinthiswayhaveadynamiceffectonmetacognitiveknowledge;

(c)theever-changingstoreofmetacognitiveknowledgewillmakefurthermetacognitiveexperiencespossible;

(d)metacognitiveexperiencesprovidethenecessaryinformationfortheutilizationofmetacognitivestrategies;

(e)theutilizationofmetacognitivestrategieswillinspirenewmetacognitiveknowledge;and

(f)theutilizationofmetacognitivestrategiesenablesindividualstoaccumulatenewexperienceswhenprovidingcognitiveactivities,whichreviseandreplenishthestoredmetacognitiveknowledge.

2.3.1.3MetacognitiveLanguageLearningStrategies

Thissectionfirstmakesanaccountofthedefinitionsofmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategies,andthendescribesindetailstheclassificationofdifferentmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategies.

2.3.1.3.1DefinitionsofMetacognitiveLanguageLearningStrategies

Metacognitivelanguagelearningstrategieshavebeendefinedbyresearchersindifferentways.Brown(1987)definedmetacognitivestrategiesassequentialprocessesthatoneusestocontrolcognitiveactivities,andtoensurethatacognitivegoal(e.g.,understandingalisteningparagraph)hasbeenmet.Theseprocesseshelptoregulatelearning.Theyarecomposedofplanningandmonitoringcognitiveactivities,aswellascheckingtheoutcomeofthoseactivities.

Ellis(1994)heldtheviewthatmetacognitivestrategiesmakeuseofknowledgeaboutcognitiveprocessesandconstituteanattempttoregulatelanguagelearningbymeansofplanning,monitoring,andevaluating,andthushaveanexecutivefunction.

Wenden(1999)regardedmetacognitivestrategiesasgeneralskillsincludingplanning,monitoring,andevaluating,throughwhichlearnersmanage,direct,regulate,andguidetheirlearning.

Cohen(1998)describedmetacognitivestrategiesasdealingwithpre-assessmentandpre-planning,on-lineplanningandevaluation,andpost-evaluationoflanguagelearningactivitiesandoflanguageuseevents.Suchstrategiesallowlearnerstocontroltheirowncognitionbycoordinatingtheplanning,organizing,andevaluatingofthelearningprocess.

Incomparison,themetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiesdescribedbyOxford(1990)andO'MalleyandChamot(1990)aremoredetailedandcomprehensive.

AccordingtoOxford(1990,p.135),「『metacognitive'meansbeyond,beside,orwiththecognition.Therefore,metacognitivestrategiesareactionswhichgobeyondpurelycognitivedevices,andwhichprovideawayforlearnerstoregulatethelearningprocess.」Theyallowlearnerstocontroltheirowncognition,i.e.,tomodulatethelearningprocessbycentering,arranging,planning,andevaluating.

O'MalleyandChamot(1990,p.44)believedthatmetacognitivestrategiesarehigherorderexecutiveskillsthatmayincludeplanningfor,monitoringorevaluatingthesuccessofalearningactivity.

2.3.1.3.2ClassificationsofMetacognitiveLanguageLearningStrategies

O'MalleyandChamotconductedaseriesofempiricalstudies(e.g.,1989)basedoninformationprocessingtheoryandproposedacomprehensivelistoflearnerstrategies,ofwhichtheclassificationofmetacognitivestrategiesisanimportantpart.Theydistinguishedthefollowing:

1.Planning:Previewingtheorganizingconceptorprincipleofananticipatedtask(advanceorganization);proposingstrategiesforhandlinganupcomingtask;generatingaplanfortheparts,sequence,mainideas,orlanguagefunctiontobeusedinhandlingatask(organizationalplanning).

2.Directedattention:Decidinginadvancetoattendingeneraltoalearningtaskandtoignoreirrelevantdistracters;maintainingattentionduringtaskexecution.

3.Selectiveattention:Decidinginadvancetoattendtospecificaspectsoflanguageinputorsituationaldetailsthatassistinperformanceofatask;attendingtoaspecificaspectoflanguageinputduringtaskexecution.

4.Self-management:Understandingtheconditionsthathelponesuccessfullyaccomplishlanguagetasksandarrangingforthepresenceofthoseconditions,controllingone'slanguageperformancetomaximizeuseofwhatisalreadyknown.

5.Self-monitoring:Checking,verifyingorcorrectingone'scomprehensionperformanceinthecourseofalanguagetask.

6.Problemidentification:Explicitlyunderstandingthecentralpointneedingresolutioninataskoridentifyinganaspectofthetaskthathindersitssuccessfulcompletion.and

7.Self-evaluation:Checkingtheoutcomeofone'sownlanguageperformanceagainstaninternalmeasureofcompletenessandaccuracy;checkingone'slanguagerepertoire,strategyuse,orabilitytoperformthetaskathand.(O'Malley&Chamot,1990,p.137-139)

InO'Malley&Chamot'smodel,theabovesevencategoriescanbeclassifiedaccordingtothreestages:advanceorganization,on-lineorganization,andpost-organization.

Planning,directedattention,selectiveattention,problemidentificationandself-evaluationcanbegroupedintoadvanceorganizationwhichoccurspriortoalearningtask.Planningisemployedasanoverallactionbeforealong-termtask,suchasmakingasemester-listeningplanatthebeginningofasemester.Itcanalsobeashortandbriefplanforaspecificlearningtask,suchasplanningforhowtolistentoapassageandwhatstrategiesareappropriateforthetask.Directedattentionintheadvanceorganizationstageinvolvesdecidinginadvancewheretodirectone'sattentioninatask.Italsofunctionsasareminderforlearnerstomaintainattentionduringtaskexecution.Selectiveattentionisusedinadvanceorganizationtoremindonetopayattentiontosomespecificaspectoflanguageinput.Problemidentificationisusefulbeforeexecutingalearningtask,becauseitcanmakelearningmoreproblem-orientedandthusencouragelearnerstofindwaystosolvetheproblem.Evaluationisgenerallyagreedtooccurafteralanguagetask,butitcanalsooccurinadvancewhenlearnersuseittoevaluatehowdifficultataskisgoingtobeandwhatstrategyisappropriateinexecutingthetask.

Thesecondgroupofmetacognitivestrategiesinvolvingon-lineorganizationincludesthosestrategiesemployedwhilelearningistakingplace.InO'Malley&Chamot'stypologytheyincludedirectedattentionwhichstudentsusetofocusonataskwhiletheyareengagedincompletingit.Forexample,studentscanemploydirectedattentionduringthewhile-listeningstagetofocusonthekeywordsandignoreirrelevantones.Selectiveattentionisalsoincludedinthiscategory.Thisisusedtohelpstudentsattendtothetargetfeaturesordetailsduringtaskexecution.Self-managementisanothermetacognitivestrategyusedinonlineorganization,whichisappliedtoarrangeandcontrolone'slanguageperformanceinordertomakethebestofwhatisalreadyknown.Self-monitoringrelatesspecificallytoonlineorganization.Itisfrequentlyemployedtocheck,verifyorcorrectone'scomprehensionorperformanceduringcompletionofatask,forexample,studentsuseself-monitoringtochecktheirunderstandinginthecourseofalisteningtask.Furthermore,monitoringisnotonlyconfinedtomonitoringcomprehension.Monitoringisalsoemployedtomonitortask,strategy,productionandsoon.

Thelastgroupofmetacognitivestrategies,postorganization,typicallyinvolvesself-evaluation,whichisusedtocheckthelearningoutcomeorperformance.Self-evaluationtakestheformsofproductionevaluation,performanceevaluation,abilityevaluationandstrategyevaluation.

Similarly,Oxford(1990)classifiedmetacognitivestrategiesintothreegroupsandtheyarefurtherdividedintoelevencategories:

1.centeringyourlearning:overviewingandlinkingwithalreadyknownmaterial,payingattention,anddelayingspeechproductiontofocusonlistening;

2.arrangingandplanningyourlearning:findingoutaboutlanguagelearning,organizing,settinggoalsandobjectives,identifyingthepurposeoflanguagetask,planningforlanguagetask,andseekingpracticeopportunities;and

3.evaluatingyourlearning:self-monitoringandself-evaluation.(p.137)

IncomparisontoO'Malley&Chamot,Oxford'sclassificationofmetacognitivestrategiesissimplerintermsofthethreestages.Arrangingandplanningone'slearninginvolvesadvance-organizationstrategiessuchasfindingoutaboutlanguagelearning,organizing,settinggoalsandobjectives,identifyingthepurposeofalanguagetask,planningforalanguagetaskandseekingpracticeopportunities.Centeringone'slearningisanon-lineorganizationstage,whichinvolvesthestrategiesofoverviewingandlinkingwiththealreadyknownmaterial,payingattentionanddelayingspeechproductiontofocusonlistening.ThelastgroupinOxford'sclassificationcanberegardedasrelevanttobothon-lineandpostorganizationstages,sincethetwostrategies—self-monitoringandself-evaluationarenotonlyengagedinthecourseoftaskexecutionbutalsoaftercompletingatask.

ThetwoclassificationsofOxfordandO'Malley&Chamotsharemuchcommongroundinsubdividingmetacognitivestrategiesintermsofthesethreetypesofcognitiveprocesses:advanceorganization,on-lineorganizationandpostorganization,thoughtheymakeuseofdifferentterms.

Basedonpreviousresearch,Anderson(2002)hasproposedfivecategoriesofmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategies,whichinclude:preparingandplanningforlearning,selectingandusinglearningstrategies,monitoringstrategyuse,orchestratingvariousstrategies,andevaluatingstrategyuseandlearning.

Bypreparationandplanninginrelationtotheirlearninggoal,studentsthinkaboutwhattheirgoalsareandhowtheywillgoaboutaccomplishingthem.Students,withthehelpoftheteacher,cansetarealisticgoalwithinasettimeforaccomplishingagoal.Settingclear,challenging,andrealisticgoalscanhelpstudentsseetheirownprogressoflanguagelearningandhopefully,bybecomingconsciouslyawareoftheirprogress,thestudents'motivationforlanguagelearningwillincrease.

Themetacognitiveabilitytoselectanduseparticularstrategiesinagivencontextforaspecificpurposemeansthatthelearnercanthinkaboutandmakeconsciousdecisionsconcerningthelearningprocess.Learnersshouldbetaughtnotonlyaboutlearningstrategiesbutalsoaboutwhenandhowtousethem.Studentsshouldbeinstructedonhowtochoosethebestandmostappropriatestrategyinagivenlanguagelearningsituation.

Thenextcategoryismonitoringstrategyuse.Byexaminingandmonitoringtheiruseoflearningstrategies,studentshaveabetterchanceofsuccessinmeetingtheirlearninggoals(Anderson,2002).Studentsshouldbeexplicitlytaughtthatoncetheyhaveselectedandbeguntousethespecificstrategies,theyneedtocheckperiodicallywhetherornotthosestrategiesareeffectiveandbeingusedasintended.

Knowinghowtouseacombinationofstrategiesinanorchestratedfashionisanimportantmetacognitiveskill.Research(e.g.,Wenden,1998;Vandergrift,2003a)hasshownthatsuccessfullanguagelearnerstendtoselectstrategiesthatworkwelltogetherinahighlyorchestratedway,tailoredtotherequirementsofthelanguagetask.Theselearnerscaneasilyexplainthestrategiestheyuseandwhytheyemploythem.BasedonO'Malley,Chamot&Kupper(1989)claimedcertainstrategiesorclustersofstrategiesarelinkedtoparticularlanguageskillsortasks.Forexample,L2listeningcomprehensionbenefitsfromstrategiesofelaboration,inferencing,selectiveattention,andself-monitoring.

Oneofthemostimportantmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiesinvolvesevaluatingtheeffectivenessofstrategyuse.Self-questioning,debriefingdiscussionsafterstrategypractice,learninglogsinwhichstudentsrecordtheresultsoftheirlearningstrategyapplications,checklistsofstrategiesandquestionnairesthatcanbeusedtoallowthestudenttoreflectthroughthecycleoflearning.Atthisstageofmetacognitionthewholecycleofplanning,selecting,using,monitoringandorchestrationofstrategiesisevaluated.

Anderson's(2002)classificationofmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiescanbeseentostillreflectthethreegeneralaspectsofmetacognition,i.e.,advanceorganization,on-lineorganizationandpostorganization.Preparingandplanningforlearningcanbedirectlygroupedintoadvanceorganizationwhichoccurspriortoalearningtask.Selectingandusinglearningstrategies,monitoringstrategyuse,andorchestratingvariousstrategiestogetherrepresentthestrategiesinvolvedinon-lineorganization.Evaluatingstrategyuseandlearningcanberegardedasbothon-lineandpostorganizationstages,sinceitisnotonlyengagedinthecourseoftaskexecutionbutalsooccursaftercompletingatask.Table3providesasummarymodelrelatingallofthethreetypologies.

Table3ASummaryModeloftheThreeTypologiesofMetacognitiveStrategies

Itshouldbenotedthatdifferentmetacognitivelanguagelearningstrategiesinteractwitheachother.Thecomponentsarenotusedinalinearfashion.Morethanonemetacognitiveprocessalongwithcognitiveonesmaybeworkingduringalearningtask(Anderson,2002).ThereforetheorchestrationofvariousstrategiesisavitalcomponentofL2learning.